Rood Literature Review

THEMES AND IMPLICATIONS IN SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Terry Rood

Ball State University

EDAC 634

February 12, 2016

Terry Rood	Commented on
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Introduction

Self-directed learning has been an area of education since the beginning of time but has only recently become an area of significant academic study and theory.  For as long as humans have been capable of it they have taken it upon themselves to learn new ideas and skills to help them succeed in the world or simply to know the joy of adding to their knowledge and talent base.  On the other hand, SDL has gotten the notice of researchers in the last fifty years (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

The field is open to study in several areas.  These include the demographics and characteristics of self-directed learners as well as the settings and goals of SDL in general.  This paper will look at these aspects in the literature and their implications to the design of SDL programs.

General Themes

Demographics of Self-Directed Learners

Before we can discuss the needs and goals of self-directed learners it is important to first determine what such a person “looks like” especially when we are talking about adult learners.  These learners are obviously different from typical k-12 students and even from the young adults found in a traditional four-year university setting.  Some definitions have been described in the literature.

For the sake of one study, Khiat (2015, p.1) defines an adult student as being typically “above 24 years old who is juggling different roles as a student, worker, spouse, and/or parent and is at least one year absent from studying in a learning institution.”  This definition can be expanded, as in the case of Van den Berg’s (1992) study, to include students of any post-secondary age.  In both cases the researchers were focused on adult self-directed learners who were still involved in some kind of institutional education setting: a four-year university in the former and an open-enrollment high school qualification program in the former.  It is not uncommon for researchers to focus on the audience at hand as can also be seen in the work of Shinkareva and Benson (2006) as well as Mwaikokesya, Osborne and Houston (2014).  Both of these studies address the relationship between university students and self-directed learning.

While these authors focus on various aspects of the adult learner in a higher education setting, others expand the field to include any adult taking on an educational endeavor regardless of setting (Bin Abdullah, Koren, Muniapan, Parasuraman, & Rathakrishnan, 2008).  Self-directed learning can take place at any age and in any setting but it is important not to confuse the terms “adult learner” and “self-directed learner” as not all adults are ready or willing to take control of their own education (Van den Berg, 1992).

Characteristics of Adult Learners

Having settled on a definition of who our self-directed adult learners are we then need to address the idea of what they are like.  The literature discusses at length the various personality traits educators and designers of SDL programs can expect to encounter in their target audience.  These include such things as orientation toward learning and personal responsibility.

According to Houle (in Bin Abdullah, Koren, Muniapan, Parasuraman, & Rathakrishnan, 2008, p. 66) “adult learners are goal-oriented, activity-oriented or learning-oriented.”  Bin Abdullah et al. also discuss Knowles’ assumptions on adult learners.  Namely:

·         Adults are autonomous and self-directed.

·         Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge.

·         Adults are goal-oriented.

·         Adults are relevancy-oriented.

·         Adults are practical.

·         Adults need to be shown respect. (p. 69)

There is some overlap in these characteristics with Knowles expanding on Houle’s earlier ideas.  Goal orientation is a topic that crops up time and again in the literature.

Another area of interest to researchers and theorists is the aspect of personal responsibility.  Kohns and Ponton (2006) took a hard look at the various theories and models of personal responsibility and found most of them to be lacking.  According to these authors “a consistent theoretical construction which could aid researchers in future research has eluded the field” (p. 16). 

Kohns and Ponton (2006) point out that the field lacks a clear definition of responsibility as it fits into self-directed learning.  For example, they take Brockett and Heimstra’s Personal Responsibility Orientation model to task for presenting “personal responsibility as both a precursor and an outcome of self-direction in learning” (p. 18).  This ambiguity interferes with a researcher’s attempt to develop measurements that lead to meaningful results.  Nonetheless, self-responsibility is widely recognized as an important characteristic in successful self-directed adult learners (Kohns & Ponton, 2006).

Grow (in Van den Berg, 1992) has addressed this need for the development of personal responsibility and the ability to for learners to be self-directed.  In his Staged Self-Directed Learning Model, he lists four learning stages: “dependent learners, interested learners, involved learners, and self-directed learners” (p. 7).  According to this model it is the role of teachers to provide learning opportunities at the present level of their students and to lead them to move along the continuum to full self-directed learning.

Settings of Self-Directed Learning

The literature also shows that there is a wide variety of settings in which self-directed learning can take place.  Regardless of the age, goals, or preparedness of the learners SDL can take place in a variety of settings and through many different modes of presentation.  Classrooms, online environments, and private exploration are all possible places where SDL may occur.

Van den Berg (1992) describes an open learning system for adults who wish to complete their high school education.  This system allows the learner to choose how to learn, when to learn, where to learn, and what to learn.  The “how” may include lecture, seminars, and independent learning.  The “when” can see variations in timing, frequency, and duration of activities.  The “where” could be any combination of classroom, home, and library.  The “what” leaves the definition of the nature of learning to the learners themselves.

More formal definitions of self-directed learning can be seen in traditional academic settings.  An increasingly common version of this can be seen in the proliferation of online courses offered by colleges and universities (Shinkareva & Benson, 2006).  Under the umbrella of “online courses” there is a wide range of self-directedness required of the student.  Some classes may include a video lecture/classroom environment, independent study with frequent scheduled contact between student and teacher, or more open-ended requirements of fulfillment with a simple end-of-course deadline for work to be completed.

Mwaikokesya et al. (2014) describe how students in a traditional classroom setting can be guided toward self-directed learning.  They have found that many schools have acknowledged the need for students to acquire the skills needed for lifelong learning.  Beyond teaching the requisite skills covered in the curriculum they call for educators to facilitate the building of “graduate attributes,” “meta-skills,” or “generic skills” (22).  This is in line with Grow’s Staged Self-Directed Learning Model discussed above.  Here we can envision students being directly taught (or guided toward) the ability to be self-directed learners.

Goals of Self-Directed Learning

The goals of self-directed learning have also been discussed in the literature.  Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner (2007, p. 107) have grouped these goals into three broad categories.  First is the goal “enhance the ability of adult learners to be self-directed in their learning.” Second is the goal “to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed learning.”  Third is the goal “to promote emancipatory learning and social action as an integral part of self-directed learning.”

The first goal asks that teachers prepare and encourage their students to take charge of their own learning and the evaluation of it.  The goal of educators in SDL is to be a resource or guide rather than a source of information and task master.  The second goal asks the learner “to reflect critically and have an understanding of … their needs, wants, and interests” (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 108).  Proponents of the third goal tend to be in opposition to supporters of the first.  These authors feel that the driving goal of SDL should be towards its effect on society as a whole and not just on the individual.

Implications

Demographics of Self-Directed Learners

In designing a program of self-directed learning for adults it is important to understand and define the target audience.  Will the program be directed at students enrolled in a formal or informal setting?  What is the age range of the expected enrollees?  What are their goals and expectations of the program?  These and myriad other questions must be answered before one can start making decisions about the structure and expected outcomes of any educational program.

Van den Berg (1992) points out that the students she was dealing with did not rate themselves as self-directed learners.  They did not want to take the responsibility to set the path of their own learning process.  She concludes by pointing out that it “is extremely important in designing and developing an open learning program to bear in mind that one of the goals of the program has to be to teach the students the skills and attitudes to become self-directed learners” (p. 7). 

Characteristics of Self-Directed Learners

The characteristics of self-directed learners will greatly influence the practice of any SDL program.  Areas like personal responsibility, reasons for seeking out learning opportunities and others must all be factored into the design of a program.

If students are not willing or able to assume the responsibility of directing their own learning then a SDL program needs to account for that (Van den Berg, 1992).  One of the goals of a SDL program “has to be to teach the students the skill and attitudes to become self-directed learners” (p. 7).  Similarly, it is important to keep in mind the question of why the learners are there in the first place.  Are they, as Houle posited, goal-oriented, activity-oriented or learning-oriented?  Enrolling someone who simply wants to know more about the local history of their town would be ill-suited to enrollment in a graduate program leading to a Master’s Degree in historical analysis while someone pursuing a degree in forestry management would probably be frustrated at the level of instruction to be found at a community gardening workshop.

Settings of Self-Directed Learning

The setting in which self-directed learning takes place has an impact on the nature of the program.  A classroom setting can still rely heavily on (or lead to) SDL while a completely independent program may completely fail to induce SDL if the participants aren’t prepared to take responsibility for their own learning.  The work of Mwaikokesya et al. (2014) contrasts with that of Van den Berg (1992) as prime examples of this dichotomy.

Another aspect of setting choice for self-directed learning is the ability for the learners to access the program.  Shinkareva and Benson (2006) discuss at length the need for instructional technology proficiency in students enrolled in an online course.  If a student has poor access to the Internet or lacks the requisite skills to utilize the technology required, then SDL isn’t likely to take place even with the best of intents of teacher and student.

Goals of Self-Directed Learning

Again, the choice of goals in self-directed learning will influence every aspect of the program being designed.  If the aim is to encourage individual growth, then students can be free to pursue whatever knowledge they desire.  On the other hand, if social awareness and change is being sought, students will need to be prepared to possibly have their beliefs challenged.  The former is easy but may in the long prove relatively pointless while the latter can be difficult but long-lasting.

In designing a program with these goals in mind it will be necessary to decide if the direction will be dictated by the leaders or left to the decision of the participants.  Even with the decision made ahead of time, it may come to pass that the participants want to go in a direction different from that planned by the teacher.  True self-directed learning should leave the ultimate decision to the learners.

Reflection

There are many aspects of self-directed learning to bear in mind when designing a SDL program.  The demographics, characteristics, setting, and goals of the program and its participants must all be considered if the program is going to successfully meet the needs of its target audience.

The demographics and characteristics of the participants may be homogenous or heterogenous.  Whichever is the case, the program needs to be flexible enough to meet the needs of whoever might enroll.  Students who are ready to be self-directed have different needs from those who do not see themselves in the same light.  It may be possible to let the learners take off and fly on their own or it may be necessary to provide the scaffolding and modeling needed to help some get to that point.

The setting and goals of the program will also need to be carefully considered.  Can all the students adequately access the materials needed to learn to their full potential?  If not, initial training and guidance may be required to get everyone up to speed on where and how to utilize the resources needed to achieve the goals.  Similarly, the goals need to be determined but flexible enough to allow the learners to take their knowledge in the direction that best suits their desires.

	Main themes/ideas in the literature	Application of the main ideas in practice
Idea 1	Demographics of learners	Determine the target audience
Idea 2	Characteristics of learners	Individual goals, preparedness
Idea 3	Settings of SDL	Where will the program take place? Need for physical meeting space vs. online only
Idea 4	Goals of SDL	What is the goal of the program?  How does this relate to the goals of the learners?

References

Bin Abdullah, M. M., Koren, S. F., Muniapan, B., Parasuraman, B., & Rathakrishnan, B. (2008). Adult Participation in Self-Directed Learning Programs. International Education Studies,1(3), 66-72. doi:10.5539/ies.v1n3p66

Khiat, H. (2015). Measuring self-directed learning: a diagnostic tool for adult learners. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice,12(2), 1-15.

Kohns, J. W., & Ponton, M. K. (2006). Understanding Responsibility: A Self-Directed Learning Application of the Triangle Model of Responsibility. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development,20(4), 16-27. doi:10.1002/nha3.10266

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: a comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mwaikokesya, M. J., Osborne, M., & Houston, M. (2014). Mapping Lifelong Learning Attributes in the Context of Higher Education Institutions. Journal of Adult and Continuing Education,20(2), 21-36. doi:10.7227/jace.20.2.3

Shinkareva, O. N., & Benson, A. D. (2006). The Relationship between Adult Students' Instructional Technology Competency and Self-Directed Learning Ability in an Online Course. Human Resource Development International,10(4), 980-987.

Van den Berg, E. (1992). Motivational profiles of adult learners in relation to self-directed learning (pp. 3-12, Rep.). San Francisco, CA: Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association.